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Informal fallacy
Commonly Used Fallacy
Begging the Question
Builds the conclusion into the premise, so the argument assumes what it is trying to prove.
Definition
Builds the conclusion into the premise, so the argument assumes what it is trying to prove.
Example
This newspaper is trustworthy because it reports the news reliably.
Extended explanation
How to think about it:
Builds the conclusion into the premise, so the argument assumes what it is trying to prove. In practice, the key question is whether the conclusion is supported by evidence and logic, or whether it depends on this reasoning shortcut instead.
Related entries
Related by logic, rhetoric, or real-world co-occurrence
These suggestions are ranked using a hybrid score that combines curated links, shared families, wording similarity, and any saved-analysis pairings the app has observed.
π
Circular Reasoning
Common
Logically close
Same family
Often confused
Restates the conclusion in different words instead of supplying independent support for it.
π£
Proving Too Much
Logically close
Same family
Often confused
Uses reasoning that, if accepted, would justify far more than the speaker likely intends.
π§©
Bad Reason Fallacy
Logically close
Same family
Similar wording
Offers reasons that do not actually justify the conclusion being claimed.
ποΈ
Special Pleading
Common
Often paired
Same family
Similar wording
Applies standards selectively, carving out an exception when the rule becomes inconvenient.
πΏ
Appeal to Nature
Common
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Assumes something is good, right, or safer simply because it is called natural.
π€¨
Personal Incredulity
Common
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Treats something as false simply because it seems hard to imagine, understand, or believe.
π
Appeal to Ignorance
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Claims something is true or false simply because it has not been proven otherwise.
π§΅
Proof by Verbosity
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Uses a flood of words, complexity, or detail to create the impression of proof without actually proving the point.
ποΈ
Appeal to Authority
Common
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Treats a claim as true mainly because an authority figure or expert said it, without enough supporting evidence.
π₯
Appeal to Emotion
Common
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Pushes the audience toward a conclusion by provoking emotion rather than giving solid reasons.
πͺ€
Fallacy Fallacy
Common
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Assumes a claim must be false merely because the argument for it was weak or fallacious.
π₯Ί
Appeal to Pity
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Treats sympathy or compassion as if it were evidence that a claim is true or justified.
π§±
Composition Fallacy
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Assumes that what is true of the parts must also be true of the whole.
π§©
Division Fallacy
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Assumes that what is true of the whole must also be true of each part.
π
Faulty Generalization
Common
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Draws a broad rule or conclusion from too little, too narrow, or unrepresentative evidence.
πͺ
Sunk Cost Fallacy
Common
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Keeps defending or continuing something mainly because time, money, or effort has already been spent on it.
β οΈ
False Analogy
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Treats two things as more alike than they really are, using a weak comparison to support the conclusion.
π£οΈ
Anecdotal
Common
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Uses a personal story or isolated example as if it were enough to prove a broad claim.
βοΈ
Burden of Proof
Common
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Shifts responsibility for proving a claim onto other people instead of supporting it directly.
π
Etymological Fallacy
Common
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Assumes a wordβs current meaning or truth is determined by its historical origin.
π§±
Fallacy of Composition and Division
Common
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Improperly transfers a property from parts to the whole, or from the whole to the parts.
π°
Gambler's Fallacy
Common
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Assumes past random outcomes make a different future outcome more likely, even when events are independent.
β
Loaded Question
Common
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Asks a question that smuggles in an unproven assumption.
π€
Middle Ground
Common
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Assumes the compromise position must be correct simply because it sits between two extremes.
π‘οΈ
No True Scotsman
Common
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Protects a general claim by redefining the group whenever a counterexample appears.
π
Appeal to Force
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Uses threats, coercion, or the prospect of punishment in place of actual reasons.
π₯
Argumentum ad Populum
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Treats popularity or public approval as evidence that a claim is true.
π
Hasty Generalization
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Jumps from a small or unrepresentative sample to a sweeping conclusion.
βοΈ
Incomplete Comparison
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Makes a comparison without stating what the thing is being compared against or by which standard.
π«
Kettle Logic
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Uses mutually inconsistent defenses all at once, hoping one of them will stick.
π°
Motte and Bailey
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Retreats to a safer, easier claim when challenged, then returns to the stronger controversial claim once the pressure passes.
π₯
Moving the Goalposts
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Changes the standard of proof or success after the original standard has been met.
πΏ
Reification
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Treats an abstract idea or label as if it were a concrete thing with independent existence.
π«οΈ
Ambiguity
Common
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Relies on vague or slippery wording that can be taken in more than one way.
πͺ
Equivocation
Common
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Switches the meaning of a key word or phrase in the middle of an argument.
π
False Cause & False Attribution
Common
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Treats two things as causally connected, or assigns credit or blame, without enough evidence.
πͺ
False Dilemma
Common
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Frames a situation as if there were only two options when more possibilities exist.
π§¬
Genetic Fallacy
Common
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Judges a claim by where it came from rather than by the quality of the claim itself.
β©οΈ
Tu Quoque
Common
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Responds to criticism by accusing the critic of similar behavior instead of addressing the criticism.
π§
Appeal to Consequences
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Treats desirable or undesirable consequences as proof that a claim itself is true or false.
π¨
Appeal to Fear
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Leans on fear or alarm to drive acceptance of a claim instead of supporting it with sound reasoning.
π²
Appeal to Probability
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Assumes that because something could happen or seems likely, it therefore will happen.
π
Appeal to Ridicule
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Mocks a position to make it seem false instead of actually refuting it.
πΊ
Appeal to Tradition
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Claims something is correct or preferable mainly because it has long been done that way.
π
Cherry Picking
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Selects only the evidence that supports a conclusion while ignoring relevant evidence that points the other way.
π
Continuum Fallacy
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Claims a distinction is meaningless just because the boundary between cases is gradual or fuzzy.
βοΈ
Fallacy of Quoting Out of Context
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Pulls words from their surrounding context so they appear to mean something different.
π·οΈ
False Attribution
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Assigns a statement, motive, source, or cause to the wrong person or factor.
βοΈ
False Equivalence
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Treats two things as morally, logically, or practically equivalent when the differences matter.
π΅οΈ
Furtive Fallacy
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Assumes hidden intent, secret coordination, or deliberate design without sufficient evidence.
πΈοΈ
Guilt by Association
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Dismisses a person or claim by linking it to someone or something disliked rather than addressing the reasoning itself.
π―
Ignoratio Elenchi
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Presents reasons that may sound relevant but do not actually answer the point at issue.
π₯
Inflation of Conflict
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Presents a disagreement as a dramatic clash when the actual gap may be smaller or more nuanced.
β¨
Nirvana Fallacy
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Rejects a realistic option because it is not perfect, comparing it unfairly to an idealized alternative.
π°οΈ
Retrospective Determinism
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Looks back at past events as if the outcome had been inevitable all along.
π¬
Shotgun Argumentation
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Throws out many weak points at once so they become difficult to answer individually.
π€
Ad Hominem
Common
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Attacks the person making the argument instead of addressing the argument itself.
π©
Bandwagon
Common
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Urges acceptance of a claim because many people supposedly already accept it.
π
Red Herring
Common
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Introduces a distraction that pulls attention away from the main issue.
π―
Texas Sharpshooter
Common
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Cherry-picks a pattern or cluster after the fact while ignoring the larger body of evidence.
π£
Argument from Repetition
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Repeats a claim so often that the repetition itself is used to make it feel true.
β οΈ
Poisoning the Well
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Discredits a person in advance so that anything they say is dismissed before it is even considered.
β±οΈ
Post Hoc
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Assumes that because one thing happened after another, the first thing must have caused the second.
π
Slippery Slope
Common
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Claims a relatively small first step will inevitably trigger a chain of extreme consequences.
π
False Cause
Same family
Similar wording
Same category
Treats two things as causally connected without enough evidence that one really caused the other.
πΎ
Strawman
Common
Same family
Same category
Misrepresents an opposing view so it becomes easier to dismiss.
βͺοΈ
Denying the Antecedent
Similar wording
Assumes that if a condition is absent, the outcome must also be absent, even though the outcome could still arise in other ways.
π’
Quantification Fallacies
Similar wording
Misuses words like all, some, or none so the conclusion goes beyond what the premises support.
π
Affirming the Consequent
Similar wording
Treats a result as proof of a particular cause, even though the same result could follow from other causes too.
4οΈβ£
Four-Term Fallacy
Similar wording
Uses a syllogism with four terms instead of three, often because a key term shifts meaning.
π
Illicit Major
Similar wording
Draws a syllogistic conclusion that distributes the major term more broadly than the premises allow.
π
Illicit Minor
Similar wording
Draws a syllogistic conclusion that distributes the minor term more broadly than the premises allow.
β΄
Propositional Fallacies
Similar wording
A broader label for invalid moves in propositional logic where the conclusion does not validly follow from the premises.
π
Syllogistic Fallacies
Similar wording
Uses a broken syllogism or category relationship so the conclusion does not logically follow.
πΊ
Undistributed Middle
Similar wording
Uses a shared middle term in a syllogism without properly connecting the categories, so the conclusion does not follow.
